44In the memoir dictated in his old age, B. G. Armstrong claimed Stuart had promised that the Chippewa could remain on their lands so long as they remained peaceful. There is no independent suggestion of the truth of this assertion—that continued occupancy and use rights were contingent on good behavior as there is little support for other such claims in Armstrong’s reminiscences. Americans in the era would have classified any such misbehavior as “depredations,” individual acts, which under the Trade and Intercourse Act of 1834 and Chippewa treaties required the punishment of the individuals concerned, not the tribe collectively. Armstrong, a self proclaim ed “friend of the Chippewa,” was actually an inconsequential figure on this frontier, who in his later years much inflated his role as mover and shaker among the Chippewa and in the corridors of power. He is barely mentioned in contemporary public and private sources, where some of his depictions are contradicted and others unsupported by various eye-witness participants. The original is, Early Life Among the Indians (Ashland, Wisconsin, 1892); edited excerpts republished as Arm strong, Reminiscences. 

45Kappler, Indian Treaties, 542—45; Brunson to Doty, July 19, 1842, NAMM234, Roll 388; Stuart to D. Greene, December 8, 1842, ABCFMP-MNHS, Box. 3. For background on mining developments in the area, see R. J. Hybels, “The Lake Superior Copper Fever,” Michigan History, 23 (1950), 97—119 & 309—26.

4646 Doty to Secretary of War, November 17, 1841; H. L. Dousman and H. H. Sibley to Secretary of War, February 18, 1841; and L. Warren to Doty, October 2, 1841; in, NAM M234, Roll 388. 

47Identified as Royce Area 332, Fig. 1. 

48Doty to COlA, April 5, 1843, NAM M234, Roll 517; and, Stuart to COlA, June 2, 1843, NAMM1, Roll 39.

49Doty to COlA, April 5, 1843, NAM M234 Roll 427. COlA to Stuart, 13 May, 1843, NAM MI Roll 54. Stuart to COlA, 2 June, 1843 & 29 March, 1844, NAM Ml Roll 39.COlA to Gov. Dodge, August 2 and 16, 1847, NAM M2I Roll 40. C. Borup to W. A. Richmond, August 31, 1847, NAM Ml Roll 61.COlA toG. Copway, December 14, 1847,NAM M2I Roll 40; and, ARCOJA 1847, 8-9. 

50COlA Medill to Dodge, October 31, 1846; and to Henry M. Rice, October 31, 1846, NAM M21 Roll 38. Medill to Dodge, August 2, 1847; and to Brig. Gen. R. Jones, December 6, 1847, NAM M2I Roll 40. 

51There is no hint of such a commitment in the records of this treaty negotiation or in the Chippewa complaints about these immediately thereafter. The 1848 assertion was probably an example of Chippewa negotiating style, although they certainly wanted reservations. 

52They were imitating the Indians of Michigan’s lower peninsula who had used this same tactic successfully more than a decade earlier. See, J. McClurken, “Strangers in Their Own Land,” The Grand River Valley Review (1985), Vol. 6, 2—26; and J. A. Clifton, “Leopold Pokagon: Transformative Leadership on the St. Joseph River Frontier,” Michigan History (1985), Vol. 69, 16—23. 

53Medill to R. McClelland, March 3, 1848, NAM M21 Roll 40; G. Johnston to H. R. Schoolcraft, June 28 & August 18, 1848, NAMM234 Roll 771; Medill to J. E. Fletcher, c/o T. Harvey, August 17, 1848, NAM M21 Roll 41; Petition of Lake Superior Chippewa Head Chiefs, February 5, 1849, House Misc. Doc. 36, 30-2 [CS 544]; Delegation of Chippewa Head Chiefs to President, February 5, 1849, NAM M234 Roll 390; Medill to Liver more, August 22, 1848 & February 12, 1849, NAM M2I Roll 41. S. Hall to A. Hall, March 28, 1849, Northwest Mission Papers [NWMP UMD] Box 1, Folder 1, University of Minnesota—Duluth; Pitezel Journal, July 9, 1849, J. H. Pitezel Papers [JPP-CHL], Clarke Historical Library, Central Michigan University. “Chippewas of L’ance,” Lake Superior News & Mining Journal [LSN&MJI, June 12, 1850.  

54“Removal of the Payments to Sandy Lake,” Journal V, 1851,JPP-CHL. 

55“R. A. Trennert, “Orlando Brown,” in, R. M. Kvasnicka and H. J. Viola, eds., The Commissioners of Indian Affairs, 1824-1977 (University of Nebraska Press, 1979), 41—48. 

56Relocating the Chippewa would have meant the loss of the only females then available to loggers and miners. Indeed, the infrequent conflicts that erupted between Americans and Chippewa were occasioned by the former trying to gain sexual access to Chippewa women. See, R. N. Current, The History of Wisconsin: Civil War Era, 1848- 1873, (State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1976), Vol. 2, 154. 

57H. M. White, Guide to the Microfilm Edition of the Alexander Ramsey Papers and Records (Minnesota Historical Society), 16-18; and, Current, History of Wisconsin, Vol. 2, 197-205. The Lake Superior Chippewa’s annual monetary value that year consisted of $22,000, and $44,200 in goods and services, plus the salaries of employees of the Indian Department. All cash payable in specie—gold and silver. This was a considerable resource for a struggling, cash-poor new Territory. See “Omnibus Appropriation Bill,” House Miscellaneous Document 57, November 12, 1850, 31—1, Vol.2, p.61 [CS 582]. 

58Presidential Order, February 6, 1850, in C. J. Kappler, Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties, 5 Vols. (Washington, D.C., 1904—1941), Vol. 5: 663; Brown to Ramsey, February 6, 1850, NAM M21 Roll 43; Ramsey to Livermore, March 4; and, Livermore to Ramsey, March 21, 2024 NAM M234 Roll 428; Secretary of State, Legislative Manual of the State of Wisconsin, 9th Ed. (Madison, 1870), p. 209.

59Brown to Watrous, April 22, 1850, NAM M21 Roll 43; “John S. Watrous File,” in, Minnesota Territory, Appointments Division, Secretary’s Files, National Archives Record Group 48, Interior Department Appointment Papers [RG48].

60Rev. Wheeler to Ely, June 19 & July 22, 1850; Rev. Hall to Ely, July 16, 1850; in, E. F. Ely Papers [EFEJ-SHS W], State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Vol. 3.

61S. B. Treat to COlA Lea, May 12, 1852, ABCFMP-MNHS, Box 6. 

62J. N. Davidson, “Missions on Chequamegon Bay,” Collections of the Wisconsin State Historical Society, Vol. 12, 434—52; Milwaukee Weekly Wisconsin, June 5, 1850; J. P. Durban to Secretary of the Interior, October 3, 1850, NAMM234, Roll 767; D. King, et a!., to D. Atkins, July 15, 1850, NAM M234, Roll 771; S. Hall to Treat, 28 March 1850, BCFMP-MNHS, Box 5; Hall to Ramsey, 28 March 1850, NAM M234, Roll 168; H. Hall to L. D. Mudgett, March 13, 1850, NWMP-UMD, Box 1. Hall to Treat, October 7, 2024 and May 17, 1853, ABCFMP-MNHS, Box 6. 

63Mendenhall to Lea, January 6, 1851, NAMM234 Roll 767; Congressman J. R. Giddings to President, July 30, 1850, w/ encl., Petition from Citizens of Lake Superior South Shore, NAM M234 Roll 390; LSN&MJ, June 5 and 12, 1850; Milwaukee Weekly Wisconsin, June 5 and July 3, 1850; J. P. Durban to Secretary of the Interior, October 3, 1850, NAM M234 Roll 767. D. Aitken to Lea, August 26, 1850, NAMM234 Roll 771. “Important Movement Among the Chippewa,” and, “Chippewa Delegation,” Detroit Free Press, November 28, 1848 and February 19, 1849. 

64LSN&MJ, June 5, 1850; Pitezel Journal, Vol. 5, June 3, 1850, JHPP-CHL; L. H. Wheeler to E. F. Ely, July 22, 1850, E. F. Ely Papers [EFEP-MNHS], Minnesota Historical Society, Vol. 3; Correspondence from J.Bowron,” Boston Daily Journal, September 14, 1850; Watrous to COlA, December 31, 1850, NAM M234, Roll 767; Watrous to Ramsey, November 14, 1850. NAM M234, Roll 767. 

65Brown to Ramsey, March 26, 1850; Watrous was handed his commission in Washington a month later—Brown to Watrous, April 22; NAM M2I, Roll 43; “Indians to be Removed,” June 1, and “From the Lake Superior Journal,” June 27, 1850, Detroit Free Press. 

66Pitezel, “President Conditions and Prospects of the Missions,” Journal, Vol. 5, July, 1850, JHPP-CHL; Hall to Ely, February 24, 1851, EFEP-MNHS, Vol. 3; Pitezel, Lights and Shades, 247; Hall to Ely, February 24, 1850, Vol. 3, EFEP-SHS W; Annual Report of the Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church [ARMS -MES], 1850, 70-7 1.

67Pitezel, “Journal,” Vol. 5 (1851), JHPP CHL; Armstrong “Reminiscences,” 290—92; W.Bartlett, History, Tradition, and Adventure in the Chippewa Valley (Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin, 1929), 67—70, 119—120; Watrous to Ramsey, n.d. [c. December 12], 1850. NAM M234, Roll 767. 

68Bartlett. History, Traditions, 69; J. E. Fletcher to Superintendent T. H. Harvey, November 14, 1850, NAM234, Roll 760; Pitezel, Lights and Shades, 298-99; Watrous to Ramsey, November 14; n.d. [c. December 12]; & December 30, 1850; in NAM M234 Roll 767. Chippewa Annuity Pay Rolls, 1850, Item 186, Annuity Pay Lists. RG 75. 

69Pitezel, Journal, Vol. 5 JHPP-CHL (1851); E. D. Neill, “History of the Ojibways,” Collections of the Minnesota Historical Society, 5(1885), 500; Armstrong, “Reminiscences,” 289—92; Hall to Ely, December 25, 1850, EEJ-SHSW, Vol. 3. 

70Watrous to Ramsey, November 13 & 14; n.d. [c. December 12]; & December 30, 1850; in NAM M234 Roll 767; Ramsey to COlA; December, 1850; in NAM M234 Roll 767; HMD57, 61. 

71Ramsey to COlA, November 14, encl., Watrous to Ramsey, November 12, 1850, NAM M234, Roll 767; Annuity Records, 20607-#798, Sandy Lake Sub-Agency, December 2, 1850, RG 75. 

72Chippewa Chiefs [of interior] to President Fillmore, [c. November], 1852; and,Chief Buffalo, et a!., [of lake shore] to COlALea, November 6, 1851; in, NAMM234, Roll 149; Watrous to Ramsey, December 10, 1850; W. W. Warren to Ramsey, January 21, 1851; Ramsey to COlA Lea, March 27, 1851; all in NAM M234 Roll 747. Hall to Treat, December 30, 1850, ABCFMP-MNHS, Box 5. H. Hall to L. Burbank, January 14, 1861, NWMP-UMD, Box 1, Folder 41; and, Pitezel, Journal Vol. 5, July, 1851, JPP-CHL.  

73Chippewa Chiefs to President Fillmore, and Chief Buffalo, et a!., to COlA Lea, cited above. Watrous to Ramsey, December 10, 1850; W. W. Warren to Ramsey, January 21, 1851; Ramsey to Lea, March 27, 1851; all in NAM M234 Roll 747. “Lake Superior and Mississippi bands Chippewa Chiefs, Sandy Lake Sub-agency, December 2, 1850, Receipt for Provisions,” Annuity Records, Item 20607—#798, RG 75. Hall to Treat, December 30, 1850, ABCFMP-MNHS, Box 5; Hall to L. Burbank, January 14, 1851, NWMP-UMD, Box 1, Folder 41. Pitezel, “Journal,” Vol. 5, July, 1851, JPP-CHL. 

74Lea to Secretary of the Interior, June 3, 1851, Report Books of the Office of Indian Affairs, NAM M348, Roll 8. C. K. Smith (Secretary, Minnesota Territory) to Lea, February 7, 1851; and, Petition of Wisconsin Assembly, February 18, 1851; both in NAM M234 Roll 767. LSN&MJ, June 11 & 18, July 28, & September 27, 1851. P. Greely (Collector of the Customs, Boston), w/encl., Boston news clipping, to Secretary of the Treasury, August 23, 1851, NAM M234 Roll 149. Watrous to COlA, July, 1851, NAM M234 Roll 149.

75Watrous to Ramsey, September 22, 1851, NAM M234 Roll 149. See also, COlA to Secretary of the Interior, June 3, 1851, NAM M348, Roll 8; Lea to Watrous, 25 August, 1851, NAM M2I Roll 45; and, Treat to Hall, September 24, 1851, ABCFMP-MNHS Box 5. 

76Watrous survived the charges against him of dereliction in public duty. His patrons in Washington and Minnesota defended him until mid-1852, when he fell under a graver suspicion, of infidelity in political character. It was first claimed, then confirmed, that Watrous had been masquerading under false party colors. As a Minnesota competitor put it on February 28, 1853, he came “on to the Mississippi a rampant Whig. He now pretends to be a strong Democrat.” It was an appropriate time for Watrous to adopt this fresh party hue, for Franklin Pierce was to be inaugurated three days later. While this switch did not save him his position as Indian Agent under the new Democratic administration, it did ease the way for his later success in Minnesota. He settled in the Fond du Lac area where he became the Register of the U. S. Land Office, and, after Minnesota's statehood, the first—Democratic—Speaker of the Minnesota Assembly. As he had anticipated in 1850, a tour as Indian Agent was a profitable thing for a young man on this frontier, both financially and as a means of career advancement. See, E. Whittsley to President Fillmore, April 17, 1852, NAM M234 Roll 149; and November 16, 1852, Roll 767. J. R. Carey, “History of Duluth, and of St. Louis County to the Year 1870,” Minnesota Historical Collections Vol. 9, 250. S. B. Olmstead to S. B. Lowry, February 28, 1853, in, “John Watrous File,” RG48. 

77Watrous to Lea, June 7, 1852, NMM234, Roll 149; Citizens of Lake Superior Petition to President Filmore, June 4, 1852, NAMM234, Roll 149; Chief Buffalo to Ramsey, July 23, 1852, NAM M234, Roll 428; B. Armstrong, Early Life Among the Indians, 26, 30-31, 101. There is no separate confirmation of Armstrong’s claims to personal credit for this success. “Treaty with the Chippewa, 1854,” Kap pier, Indian Treaties, 648—52. 

78The Last Trek of the Indians (University of Chicago Press, 1946), 14—15.

79Charles Callender calls this the secondary or lesser configuration of Old Northwest Indian patterns in his, “Great Lakes-Riverine Sociopolitical Organization,” in Trigger, Handbook. . Northeast, 610. 

80James A. Clifton, A Place of Refuge; J. McClurken, “Ottawa Adaptive Strategies to Indian Removal,” The Michigan Historical Review (1986), Vol. 12, 29—57.

81Callender refers to this as the dominant configuration in the Old Northwest, “Great Lakes-Riverine,” 610. 

82See, Treaties with the Seneca, Shawnee, and Ottawa, 1831 in Kappler, Indian Treaties, 325—39. Also, Prucha, Great Father, Vol. 1, 247—48. 

83James A. Clifton, “From Bark Canoes to Pony Herds: the Great Lakes Transportation Revolution, 1750—1775,” Henry Ford Museum & Greenfield Village Herald (Vol.15, 1986), 12—19.  

84C. G. Klopfenstein, “The Removal of the Indians from Ohio, 820—1843,” Ph. D. diss., Western Reserve University, 1956, 61—62; J. Johnston to L. Cass, February 3, 2024 and April 14, 1825, NAM Ml, Rolls 14 and 16; “Wapokonetta Council,” Ni/es Weekly Register, June 25, 1825; E. W. Duval to Secretary of War Calhoun, November 28, 1824, NAM M234, Roll 60; Actg.Governor R. Crittenden to Calhoun, September 28, 1823, TPUS, Vol. 19,549.  

85Bert Anson, The Miami Indians (University of Oklahoma Press, 1970), 213—33,266-89; S. J. Raefert, “The Hidden Community: The Miami Indians of Indiana,1846—1940,” Ph. D. diss., University of Delaware; Clifton, The Pokagons.

86R. F. Bauman, “Kansas,Canada, or Starvation,” Michigan History, Vol. 36, 287-98; Clifton, A Place of Refuge.  

87See,Great Father, Vol. 1, 244; compare, James A. Clifton, “Escape, Evasion, and Eviction: Adaptive Responses of the Indians of the Old Northwest Territory to the Jacksonian Removal Policy of the 1830s,” TS, paper read at the Conference on the American Indian and the Jacksonian Era, Middle Tennessee State University (1980), 17—18 (Copy on deposit, D’Arcy McNickle Center, New- berry Library, and Wisconsin State Historical Society). 

88See, H. H. Tanner, ed., Atlas of Great Lakes Indian History (University of Oklahoma Press,1986), 122—125.  

89E.Whittsley to President Fillmore, April 17, 1852, NAM M234 Roll 149; and November 16, 1852, Roll 767. Carey, “History of Duluth,” 250. 

90 The Power to Lead: The Crisis of the American Presidency (New York, 1984), 122.  

91Qualitative Science(New York, 1983), 203—204. 

92For the later reservation history, see P. Shifferd, “A Study in Economic Change Among the Chippewa of Northern Wisconsin: 1854—1900,” The Western Canadian Journal of Anthropology 6—4(1976); and, Danziger, The Chippewas, 91 -132.

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