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Origins of Violence
-
2
Recognizing a Native American Holocaust
Prologue
Before Columbus
Pestilence and Genocide
Sex, Race and Holy War
Epilogue
Examining the Reputation of
Christopher Columbus
Christopher Columbus, Marrano and Mariner
Christopher Columbus Jewish and New Christian
Elements
Christopher Columbus and the Indians
Columbus My
Enemy
The Native American Discovery of Europe before
Columbus
Columbus exposed as iron-fisted tyrant who
tortured his slaves
Columbus Day -The white man’s myth and the Redman's
Holocaust
How Lincoln's Army 'Liberated' the Indians
Lincoln Targeting Civilians Is a War Crime
Massacre at Sand Creek
Wounded Knee Hearing Testimony
An Ojibwe Trail of Tears
Wisconsin Trail of Tears
Ojibwe Creation Story
Paleo-American Origins
Myth of the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel
Tracing the Path of Violence: The Boarding School
Experience
The Wallum Olum: a Pictographic History of
the Lenni Lenape, Root Tribe from which the Ojibwe arose
A Migration Legend of the Delaware Tribe
Wallum Olum: The Deluge
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Part II
Winter Count: History Seen from a Native
American Tradition -
2 -
3
The Story of the Opposition on the Road to
Extinction: Protest Camp in Minneapolis
Who Deems What Is Sacred?
Savage Police
Brutality vs Nonviolence of the People
Mendota Sacred Sites - Affidavit of Larry
Cloud-Morgan
Cloud-Morgan, Catholic activist, buried
with his peace pipe
Larry Cloud-Morgan
and the Silo Pruning Hooks
Larry Cloud-Morgan:
Testimonies to a Great Soul
The Truth about Khazars -
2
Canadian Genocide of Indian Children by Church and
State-
2 -
3
Residential School Genocide: Why "Apology" Isn't
Enough
Canadian Prime Minister Harper Apologizes for
Residential School Abuse
Quantum Physics Leads Science Back to the Sacred Fire
Cultural Differences Can Lead to Misunderstanding
Maritime
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A New Beginning: A Practical
Course in Miracles
1 INTRODUCTION
2 HISTORY
OF COMMERCE
3 RESPONSIBILITY
4
REDEMPTION
5
POWER OF ACCEPTANCE
6
BEING A DIPLOMAT
7
BEING A SOVEREIGN
8
PRIVATE BANKING
Museum-quality
willow animal effigies
of the Southwest
Archaic culture, art from a 4,000 year-old tradition by Bill Ott
Unique Cherokee Dream-Catcher
from basket-weavers' numerology by Catherine
Sundvall
Indian Tribes and Termination
Ojibwe Art and Dance
Ojibwe Forestry and Resource Management
Ojibwe Homes
Ojibwe
Encampment on the Winnipeg River by Paul Kane
Interpreting the Ojibwe Pictographs of
North Hegman Lake, MN
Ojibwe Honor Creation, the Elders and
Future Generations
Ojibwe Indian Reservations and Trust Land
Ojibwe Language
Introduction to Ojibwe Language
Introduction to Ojibwe Noun and Pronoun Grammar
Introduction to Ojibwe Numbers
and Money
Introduction to Ojibwe Verbs
and Preverbs
Introduction to Ojibwe
Verb Grammar
Introduction to Ojibwe Command and Question Grammar
FREELANG OJIBWE DICTIONARY - free downloadable Ojibwe-English &
English-Ojibwe dictionary form
Freelang.net.
Ojibwe Snowshoes and the Fur Trade
Ojibwe Sovereignty and the Casinos
Ojibwe Spirituality and Kinship
The
Question of Quantum
-
2 -
3 -
4
Family, Community, and School Impacts on
American Indian and Alaska Native Students' Success
Construction and Symbolism of the Sweat
Lodge
Ojibwe Tobacco and
Pipes
Traditional Ojibwe Entertainment
Myth of the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel
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2 -
3
-
4
Soul of the Indian:
Foreword
The Great Mystery -
2
The Family Altar -
2
Ceremonial and Symbolic Worship
-
2
Barbarism and the Moral Code
-
2
The Unwritten Scriptures
-
2
On the Borderland of Spirits
-
2
Charles Alexander Eastman
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Traditional Life of the Ojibwe
Aurora Village Yellowknife
The Making of a Man
Little Dancer in the Circle
Friends in the Circle
Grass Dancer
Shawl Dancers
Jingle Dress Dancers
Fancy Shawl Dancer
Men Traditional Dancers
Powwow:
The Good Red Road
Crater Lake Photo Gallery
Crater Lake Landscape
Flowers of Crater Lake
Birds & Animals of Crater Lake
Gold Mantled Ground Squirrel
The Rogue River
Sacred Fire of the Modoc
Harris Beach Brookings Oregon
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Christopher
Columbus Voyage of Discovery: Jewish and New Christian Elements
by Joseph Adler
Midstream 43:25 November 1998
Columbus
in 1492. The journey was spectacular not only for its length and daring, but
because it led to one of the biggest surprises in history - the discovery of
America. All of the biographers of Columbus recognize this great feat, but
many are rather reticent concerning the discoverer's early years and
ancestry. Indeed, many scholars shrink from the possibility that yje great explorer may have had Jewish ancestors.
There is however, little controversy that the epoch-making expedition
was largely made possible by Jews, New Christians (i.e., Conversos ) and
Marranos. The most dramatic and best known of the voyages of exploration
was, of course, the one made by ( nominally Conversos who secretly retained their allegiance to
Judaism). There were many of them.
In Lisbon, Columbus knew
and consulted with Joseph Diego Mendes Vezinho ( 1450 - 1520 ), a Jewish
scientist and cosmographer at the Portuguese court. Vezinho, who was
later to convert to Christianity, headed a committee of savants and
experts on nautical matters chosen to consider Columbus's proposed
expedition of discovery. In his work for the Portuguese monarch, Vezinho
had helped develop a new and improved astronomical calendar, star
tables, and more efficient nautical instruments. Although Vezinho did
not favor Columbus's plan, his work for establishing direction and
location at sea would prove of inestimable value to the future
discoverer of the New World.
Columbus also derived valuable information
from Avraham Zacuto ( c. 1450 - 1515 ), a product of the "juderia" of
Saragossa, who would be forced by the expulsion of Jews from Spain to flee
to Portugal. While still a professor at the University of Salamanca, Zacuto
had achieved fame as a scientist, mathematician, and inventor. He is
credited with constructing the first metal astrolabe as well as the
development of astronomical tables that gave the exact hours for the rising
of the planets and fixed stars. His table of ephemeredes was translated into
Latin by Vezinho and published under the titile 'Almanach Perpetuum'. This
invaluable guide to navigation was used by Columbus on his voyage across the
Atlantic. Zacuto met Columbus prior to his first voyage and endorsed the
venture, but considered the expedition to be an extremely hazardous
undertaking.
Columbus's navigational skills also owed much to the inventiveness of a
handful of Jewish scholars of the Middle Ages. Outstanding among the latter
was Levi ben Gershon ( 1288 - 1344 ), Biblical commentator, mathematician,
and astronomer. Levi was the inventor of the cross - staff, better known as
"baculus Jacob" ( Jacob's staff ). This simple instrument enabled mariners
to measure angular separation between two celestial bodies. Still another
nautical instrument available to Columbus was the "quadrant Judaicus", the
brainchild of Jacob ben Machir ibn Tibbon ( 1236 - 1307 )
Indeed, virtually all the nautical aids used by Columbus were the products
of Jewish minds. Many of the discoverer's maps, for example, were the
creation of Jehudah Cresques ( c. 1360 -? ), at one time head of the
National Academy of Palma on Majorca ( a center of Jewish cartography during
the 14th century ). In the persecutions of 1391, Cresques was forced to
convert to Christianity and was given a new name - Jayme Ribes. He entered
the service of the king of Portugal and became the director of the School of
Navigation at Sagres - the institution founded by Henry the Navigator that
marked the beginning of the Age of Discovery.
In 1485, Columbus suddenly left Portugal for Spain. Almost immediately, he
began a search for a sponsor for his proposed voyage of discovery. After
several frustrating false starts, he appealed to a nobleman of Andalusia,
Luis de Cerda, the count of Medici -Celi. De Credo's hospitality was
legendary, and he took Columbus under his wing, sheltering the mariner for
almost two years. The count also offered to outfit three ships for
Columbus's contacts, Luis de Cerda recommended him to his cousin, Cardinal
Pedro Ganzales de Mendoza, bishop of Toledo. The cardinal and the count were
related through the same Jewish grandmother, and both men had been subjected
to attacks because of their descent.
De Mendoza, in his capacity as chairman of a special commission that met to
consider the merits of Columbus's plans, heartily endorsed the mariner's
proposals. His cousin, Luis de Cerda, also continued to lobby on behalf of
Columbus; he sent a strong letter to the Spanish monarchs urging them to
reconsider their opposition to Columbus's proposals and, at the very least,
to grant the mariner an audience. De Cerda's appeal yielded results, and in
1486, Columbus was granted a royal audience at Cordoba. Queen Isabella and
King Ferdinand were not entirely convinced by Columbus's presentation but
agreed to submit his project to a commission of scholars. To head the
commission Isabella chose her confessor, Hernando de Talavera ( 1428 - 1507
), prior of the Prado and later archbishop of Granada. Hernando de Talavera
was the grandson of a Jewish woman and in his declining years, would be
accused of being a Marrano and was brought before the Inquisition.
Humiliated, and unable to counter the vicious proceedings of the court
headed by Rodriquez Lucerno, the inquisitor of Cordoba, the proud Hernando
would die of mortification. Columbus himself suffered patiently for several
years, as the so-called experts of the de Talavera commission debated
endlessly the feasibility of his proposals ( they eventually rejected his
plan.)
It was during these early years of tribulation in Spain that Columbus gained
the support of two highly placed and influential Jews - Abraham Senior and
Isaac Abravanel. Senior ( 1412 - 1493 ), during the reign of Isabells's
predecessor, King Henry 1V of Castile, had served as chief tax collector of
the kingdom and was appointed by the monarch to head the Jewish community of
Segovia. Along with a number of other influential Jews, Senior had played a
key role in arranging the marriage of Isabella to Ferdinand of Aragon. Some
years later, in the power struggle between Isabella and her brother, King
Henry 1V, Senior, together with a few other notables, succeeded in
convincing the commander of the fortress of Segovia to hand over the city to
Isabella and her consort. This act opened the way for the unification of
Castile and Aragon and, eventually all of Spain.
Once in power, the grateful Catholic monarchs rewarded Senior by appointing
him "rab de la corte," i.e., court rabbi and supreme judge of the Jews of
Castile. He also received a large pension and was exempted from the
restrictions in dress that had been imposed on Spanish Jewry. In 1468,
Senior was made treasurer general of the Hermanded, a semi- military
organization formed for the maintenance of law and order. In addition, as
factor general to the Spanish army, Senior played a major role in
facilitating the conquest of Grenada, the last remaining stronghold of the
Moors in Spain.
Tradition has it that Senior met Columbus at Malaga, at which time the
future admiral outlined his plan to the Jewish courtier. Columbus was well
aware that his proposed expedition would require large financial commitments
and welcomed the promise of the support of Senior.
Don Isaac ben Judah Abravanel ( 1437 - 1508 ) a close associate of Senior,
was another supporter of Columbus at the Spanish court. Born in Lisbon,
Isaac was a child prodigy. His many talents eventually attracted the
attention of King Alfonso of Portugal, and he became the latter's advisor,
as well as the kingdom's financial minister. However, Abravanel's life took
an unexpected turn with the death of his royal patron. The new king
suspected Abravanel of being involved in an insurrection against his regime
led by the duke of Braganca. Abravanel, fearing for his life, fled to Spain
(Toledo). When Ferdinand and Isabella learned of his presence in their
realm, they invited him to join their court. Some time later, Senior
enlisted his aid in tax farming the kingdom's revenues. Abravanel gradually
amassed a great personal fortune and loaned enormous sums to the Catholic
monarchs in their war against the Moors of Granada. Indeed, it was shortly
after the fall of Malaga that Abravanel, in the company of his friend,
Senior, met Columbus and was first exposed to the latter's plan for a voyage
of discovery across the Atlantic. Although Abravanel favored the mariner's
plan, his support would come to an abrupt halt following the issuance of the
edict of expulsion of Spanish Jewry in 1492.
Abravanel, in spite of pressure from Ferdinand and Isabella to convert to
Christianity, remained steadfast in his beliefs and immigrated to Naples.
When theKingdom of Naples, in 1494, fell to King Charles V111 of France,
Abravanel accompanied the deposed Neapolitan monarch, whom he had served as
treasurer, into exile in Sicily. After the death of the former Neapolitan
ruler, Abravanel moved to Corfu and, in 1496, returned to Naples. Some years
later, at the urging of his son, Joseph, he settled in Venice, where he
served as a diplomat for the republic until his death in 1508.
Abraham Senior, who had served the Catholic majesties so faithfully for many
years, was at first given permission to leave Spain with whatever personal
possessions he wished to take along with him. However, steady pressure was
exerted by Isabella and Ferdinand for Senior to convert. The queen, in
particular, threatened to impose further reprisals against the departing
Jews, and Senior, too old and tired to fight any longer, accepted baptism
and was allowed to remain in Spain. Taking the name Fernando Munez Coronel,
he was further rewarded for his apostasy by being appointed "regidor of
Segovia" (governor) and made a member of the royal council, as well as chief
financial administrator to the crown prince. He died shortly afterwards in
1493.
Among Columbus's highly placed patrons was Luis de Santangel, a member of
one of the wealthiest and influential families of Aragon. An ancestor,
Azarias Chinillo, had converted to Christianity in the early years of the
15th century in the wake of the persecutions against the Jews led by the
fanatical Dominican friar, Vincent Ferrer. Azarias would become bishop of
Majorca.
Luis de Santangel began his career as a tax farmer and courtier. A favorite
of King Ferdinand, he was appointed in 1481 'escribano de racion', a kind of
comptroller general, to the royal house of Aragon. He would also later hold
the post of 'contador mayor' (paymaster general) for Castile.
Although nominally New Christians, the Santangel family's attachment to
Catholicism was at best lukewarm, and its members were among the early
targets of the Inquisition. Indeed, a kinsman of Luis was accused of
complicity in the murder of Pedro de Arbues, canon of the Cathedral of
Saragossa and the heart and soul of the Inquisition in Aragon. The kinsman
was also charged and condemned for being a secret Jew ( i.e., a Marrano .)
In July of 1491, Luis de Santangel was also accused of being a Marrano. King
Ferdinand intervened on his behalf and managed to stop the Inquisition's
proceedings.
Luis de Santangel first met Columbus in 1486 and was greatly impressed by
the latter's personality and plans for a voyage of discovery. When, some
years later, word reached him that Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand had
once again rejected Columbus's project and had sent him on his way,
Santangel immediately requested and received an audience with Her Majesty.
With great eloquence, he pleaded for Columbus's voyage of discovery and
prevailed upon the queen to have the mariner brought back to the court for
further discussions. The queen agreed, and a bewildered Columbus was brought
back to the court to once again present arguments for his proposed
expedition of discovery.
Anticipating the royal couple's anxiety on how to finance a voyage across
the Atlantic, Santangel reminded the monarchs that the Santa Hermandad, of
which he was one of treasurers, had a large endowment that could be borrowed
against. He also indicated to the Spanish rulers that he was willing to back
the Columbus expedition with a considerable sum from his personal fortune. (
He would later also call upon his Converso friends to contribute toward the
financing of the expedition.) The tax farmer also reminded Ferdinand and
Isabella of an overlooked debt to the Crown. It seems that the community of
Palos on the southern coast of Castile had been found guilty of smuggling,
and a fine had been levied against it that had gone uncollected. The town
owed the Crown three months of service and two caravels. Santangel's
arguments proved to be the decisive factor in swaying the Spanish sovereigns
to back Columbus's project. A grateful Columbus would not forget his
benefactor. It was to Luis de Santangel that he addressed the famous letter
announcing his discoveries. Indeed, Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand would
first hear of the successful undertaking from the lips of Santangel.
An identical letter was sent by Columbus to Gabriel Sanchez, one of the
three influential New Christians that Luis de Santangel had gotten to help
finance the explorer's initial voyage. grabriel Sanchez (d. 1505)
was the high treasurer of the Kingdom of Aragon, and a member of a
distinguished family of Conversos who traced their origins back to a Jew
named Alazar Goluff of Saragossa. After the murder of the inquisitor Pedro
de Arbues, three of the brothers of Gabriel Sanchez - Juan, Alfonso, and
Guillen - were accused of having participated in the conspiracy to eliminate
the Inquisitor. Juan managed to escape but was condemned to death in effigy.
Alfonso, who was also accused of being a Marrano, managed to flee Aragon
before the Inquisition could lay hands on him. The third brother, Guillen,
was allowed by the Inquisition to repent. The father-in-law of Gabriel
Sanchez, also implicated in the murder plot, was less fortunate than Guillen.
He was charged with Judaizing and sentenced to death.
Grave charges were also brought against Gabriel Sanchez. He was accused of
having participated in the conspiracy that led to the murder of Pedro de
Arbues. Since the allegations could not be proved, and Sanchez continued to
have the support of King Ferdinand, he was able to survive the efforts of
the Inquisition to tar him as a heretic and backslider.
As in the case of Luis de Santangel, Columbus regarded gariel Sanchez as one
of his staunchest supporters. The letter the discoverer sent to Sanchez
describing the findings of the first voyage to the New World was reproduced
by the high treasurer, and a copy was forwarded to his brother, Juan, in
Florence. The latter passed it on to his cousin Lenardo de Cosco, a Marrano,
who translated it into Latin and had it published. Within a year, the Latin
translation ran through nine editions, thus spreading the news of the New
World throughout Europe.
Still another of Columbus's highly placed patrons was Alfonso de la
Caballeria. He was the descendant of a Jewish family that had achieved
prominence in Spain as early as the 13th century. During the course of the
15th century, a family schism occurred, and eight of the nine sons of the
head of the household converted to Christianity. In the succeeding
generations, many members of the family achieved fame and fortune in the
service of the state and the Church. At the same time, by marriage, the de
la Caballeria clan became closely allied with almost all the major Converso
families in Spain.
Alfonso, like his father before him, started his career as a counselor at
the court of Aragon and rose rapidly through the ranks of the bureaucracy.
In the 1480's, he was appointed vice-chancellor of aragon. Nevertheless, in
spite of his high office, he was not immune from investigation by the
Inquisition. He was accused of having been involved in the Pedro de Arbues
conspiracy. Allegations concerning other members of Alfonso's family, many
of whom were suspected of being Marranos, were also introduced by the
tribunal. Thus, Alfonso's father, Pedro, although long deceased, was
described by one Inquisition witness as having posed as a Christian who
frequently reverted in thoughts and deeds to his ancestral traditions. Still
other members of the de la Caballeria clan were accused of still maintaining
close ties with the synagogue and the Jewish community.
The judicial proceedings initiated by the Inquisition would drag on for 20
years. Finally, in 1501, the papacy confirmed Alfonso de la Caballeria's
Catholic orthodoxy, and he was completely exonerated. However, the toll of
the prolonged trail had been high. He was unable, for example, to prevent
the Inquisition's exhumation of the bones of his grandmother, or his wife's
appearance as a penitent in an 'auto-da-fe, or the burning of his brother
Jaime in effigy.
Completing the list of powerful Conversos who rendered financial support to
Columbus when it was most desperately needed, is that of Juan Cabrero, royal
chamberlain of King Ferdinand. He was regarded as one of the king's most
faithful and trusted retainers. Carero had fought at Fernando's side in the
war against the Moors and was an intimate friend as well as advisor to the
monarch. However, even this high-placed New Christian official's family
could not escape the tentacles of the Inquisition. Juan's grandfather,
Sancho de Patenoy, the grand treasurer of Aragon, was accused in the Arbues
conspiracy and sentenced to death. Juan Cabrero, using all his influence at
court, managed with great difficulty to have the verdict changed to life
imprisonment.
In addition to Luis de Santangel, Alfonso de la Caballeria, and Juan
Sanchez, two other individuals merit attention as supporters of Columbus at
the Spanish court. They are Marchioness de Moya, and Juan de Coloma. De Moya,
a close friend and confidant of Queen Isabella, it is widely believed, was a
member of a Marrano family. Although hard evidence is lacking, it is known
that the marchioness associated with Marranos and Conversos and on several
occasions, intervened to save such individuals, from the Inquisition.
Juan de Coloma, a royal secretary, had a hand in drawing up the contract
between Columbus and the Catholic monarchs. Although one of the few high
officials of "Old Christian" stock involved with the initial expedition of
Columbus, his wife was a New Christian - a member of the Caballeria family.
Columbus's connections with the Jews, New Christians, and Marranos, was not
limited to court officials. There is the controversial matter that some of
his shipmates were of Jewish stock. Five crew members are generally singled
out for this distinction; Alonso de la Calle, a bursar, who eventually
settled in Hispaniola and whose very name indicates that he was born in the
Jewish quarter; Rodrigo de Sanchez of Segovia, who was related to Gabriel
sanchez, the high treasurer of Aragon; Marco, the surgeon; Maestre Bernal of
Tortosa, a physician who had been reconciled by the Inquisition in 1490, but
was forced to witness his wife's death at the stake of an auto-da-fe, and
Luis de Torres, the official interpreter of the expedition, who had been
baptized a few days before the fleet sailed. Torres had been specifically
appointed by Columbus as interpreter because he knew Hebrew, Chaldean and
arabic. This knowledge was expected to prove useful if the voyagers came
across 'Asiatic" descendants of the Ten Last Tribes of Israel.
Prior to his conversion, Luis de Torres had been employed as an interpreter
by Juan Chacon, the governor of Murcia ( a province with a large Jewish
population ). Since Columbus's first voyage coincided with the expulsion of
the Jews from Spain, Luis's job with the governor was obviously over. There
were no longer any Jews for whom he might have interpreted in their audience
with the governor.
When Columbus discovered Cuba, he was convinced that he had found Marco
Polo's Cinpangu (Japan). The "admiral", however, was puzzled that there were
no silk clad sages, or palaces tiled with gold to be seen anywhere.
Accordingly, he decided to dispatch an embassy into the interior of the
island, where he believed the cities were located. Tolead the mission, he
chose Luis de Torres. The interpreter was given a Latin passport, which he
was to present to the chief of the natives ("the Great Khan"), as well as
gifts. He also carried letters of credence from Queen Isabella and King
Ferdinand. An able-bodied seaman named Rodrigo de Jerez was chosen to
accompany Torres. Two native Arawak Indian guides rounded out the embassy.
The mission into the island's interior proved disappointing to Columbus, for
the group found nothing resembling an imperial city, or gold. However,
Torres did bring back a fairly comprehensive report of the native people he
and Rodrigo had encountered, their customs and manners, as well as a
description of some of the island's fauna and flora. Among the wonders that
Torres had noted was a strange practice of the natives to put thin rolls of
dried leaves ( tobacco) into their nostrils or mouths, lighting them, and
blowing out smoke.
Although Luis de Torres's linguistic skills proved useless in carrying out
his mission, the resourceful interpreter, not understanding the Amerindian
dialect, fell back upon sign language to carry out his instructions. Torres
would later seek permission to settle in Cuba as a royal agent. His request
was granted with an annual pension from the Crown. By cultivating his
friendship with the native ruler of the island, Torres would, in time,
aquire large tracts of land and carve out for himself a small empire. He was
the first European to visit the inhabitants of the New World in their native
setting, and the first to describe their life before it was corrupted by
contact with the white man.
Scholars have long squabbled over the question as to why high-placed New
Christians and Jews were willing to take on the enormous risk of financing
Columbus's initial expedition. One possible explanation that has been
suggested is that the discoverer and his patrons had a deep and ineradicable
impulse to help their fellow Jews, or in the case of the Conversos such as
Luis de Santangel, Alfonso de la Caballeria, and Juan Sanchez, their former
co-religionists to whom they still felt linked.
A biographer of Columbus, John Boyd Thatcher, putting it more succinctly,
has written; "that the triumph of Columbus ---- was the triumph of the
Converso Luis de Santangel, visionary and champion of the perennial lost
cause of history --- the cause of the Jews." Other writers ( notably
Salvador de Madariaga and Simon Wiesenthal) have speculated that the
longings of the Conversos who supported Columbus may have run parallel to
the dreams of the discoverer himself, namely, an obsessive dream to find a
refuge for the Jews in the lands that he hoped to find across the Atlantic.
What ever the truth, it is a fact that many Marranos and Conversos listened
to the tales emanating from the New World following Columbus's epic voyages
and flocked to the lands that he had claimed for Iberia. They had board
ships secretly, for officially they were strictly forbidden to set foot in
the new territories. However, disregarding all the bans and harbor controls,
they made their way across the ocean, where they hoped to make a new life.
Joseph Adler, an historian, is the author of 'The Herzl Paradox' and
articles that have appeared in the Herzl Yearbook
Sources:
1 Amber, Jane Francis, Christopher Columbus's Jewish Roots.Northvale, NJ:
Jason Aronson, Inc., 1991
2 Baer, Yitzhak. A History of the Jews in Christian Spain.2 vols.,
Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society of America.1961
3 Birmingham, Stephen, The Grandees, New York: Harper & Row.1971
4 Burgos, Francisco Cantera, Abraham Zacuto, Madrid: M Aguilar.1935
5 Costa, Abel Fontoura da, L'Almanach Perpetuum de Abraham Zacuto:Congress
International d'Histoire des Sciences.1936 pp 137-146
6 Cohen, Martin A, Joseph Vezinho, Encyclopaedia Judaica vol.16.Jerusalem
Keter Publishing House.1971 pp 81-82
7 Heinrich Graetz, History of the Jews, 5 vols. Philadelphia;The Jewish
Publication Society of America.1956
8 Keller, Werner, Diaspora. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1969
9 Lebeson, Anita L. Jewish Cartographers, A forgotten Chapter of Jewish
history. History Judaica X1, 1949. pp 155/174
10 Lebeson, Anita l. Pilgrim People. New York: Minerva Press 1975
11 Minkin, Jacob S. Abrabanel and the Expulsion of the Jews feom Spain: New
York Berman's Jewish Book House. 1938
12 Morison, Samuel E. Portuguese Voyages to America in the Fifteenth
Century. Cambridge: Harvard Univ.Press.1940
13 Morison, Samuel E. Admiral of the Ocean Sea, 2 vols. Boston: Little,
Brown Company.1942
14 Roth, Cecil. A History of the Marranos. Philadelphia: The Jewish
Publication Society of America. 1932
15 On the statement referring to the triumph of Luis de Santangel, see J
Boyd Thatcher, Christopher Columbus, His Life, His Work, His Remains. vol.1 New York: GP Putnam's
Sons.1903-04 p 459
16 Simon Wiesenthal, Sails of Hope: The secret Mission of Columbus. New
York: Macmillan Publishing Company.1973
Published in Midstream - November 1998
White Eagle Soaring: Dream Dancer of the 7th Fire
Index of DreamCatchers
However You Spell DreamCatcher
However you've spelled Dream Catcher, these REAL Dream Catchers are
natural magic from Creator Direct (Manidoog).
This is a crazy world. What can be
done? Amazingly, we have been mislead. We have been taught that we can
control government by voting. The founder of the Rothschild dynasty, Mayer
Amschel Bauer, told the secret of controlling the government of a nation
over 200 years ago. He said, "Permit me to issue and control the money of
a nation and I care not who makes its laws." Get the picture? Your freedom
hinges first on the nation's banks and money system. That's why we
advocate using the
Liberty Dollar, to understand the
monetary and banking system. Freedom is connected with
Debt Elimination for each individual. Not
only does this end personal debt, it places the people first in line as
creditors to the National Debt ahead of the banks. They don't wish for you
to know this. It has to do with recognizing WHO you really are in
A New Beginning: A Practical Course in Miracles.
You CAN
take
back your power and
stop volunteering to pay taxes to the collection
agency for the BEAST. You can take back that which is yours,
always has been yours and use it to pay off your debts. And you can send
others to these pages to discover what you are discovering.
Disclaimer: The
statements on www.real-dream-catchers.com have not been evaluated by the FDA.
These dream catchers are not intended to diagnose nor treat nor cure any
disease or illness
© 2007, Allen Aslan Heart / White Eagle Soaring of the Little Shell Pembina Band, a
Treaty
Tribe of the Ojibwe Nation
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